GIFT   OF 


157 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


FARMERS'   BULLETIN   No.  34. 


.9  iar/ 

•«l»  / 


MEATS:  COMPOSITION  AND  COOKING. 


BY 


CHAS.    D.    WOODS, 

OFFICE     OF     EXPERIMENT    STATIONS. 
[Corrected  February  17,  1904.] 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1904. 


-(4 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  October  12,  1895. 

SIR:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  for  publication  as  a  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
an  article  on  the  composition  and  cooking  of  meats,  prepared  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  Prof.  W.  0.  Atwater,  special  agent  in  charge  of  nutrition  investigations, 
by  Mr.  Chas.  D.  Woods,  vice-director  of  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment  Station,  and 
attached  to  this  Office  as  an  expert  for  nutrition  investigations.  This  bulletin  sum- 
marizes the  results  of  investigations  regarding  the  nutritive  value  of  different  kinds 
of  meat,  and  points  out  some  of  the  things  which  should  be  considered  in  the  cooking 
of  meats  for  different  purposes.  The  table  appended  to  this  article  is  based  upon  all 
the  available  data  regarding  the  composition  and  fuel  value  of  American  meats  (exclu- 
sive of  fish),  and  is  believed  to  be  more  complete  than  any  similar  table  hitherto 
published. 

Respectfully, 

A.  C.  TRUE, 

Director. 
Hon.  J.  STERLING  MORTON, 

Secretary. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Animal  and  vegetable  foods  compared 

Structure  of  meats 4 

Composition  of  meats 4 

Refuse,  as  bone,  skin,  etc 5 

Water 7 

Fats 7 

Nitrogenous  constituents  (protein) 10 

Carbohydrates  and  ash 

Texture  (toughness)  of  meats 11 

Flavor  of  meats 13 

Digestibility  of  meats 13 

The  cooking  of  meats 14 

Boiling 15 

Stewing 

Broths,  soups,  meat  extracts 17 

Roasting 18 

Cute  of  meat 19 

Cuts  of  beef 19 

Cuts  of  veal 21 

Cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton : 22 

Cuts  of  pork 23 

Composition  and  fuel  value  of  meats 24 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  x.  Diagrams  of  cute  of  beef 20 

2.  Diagrams  of  cuts  of  veal 21 

3.  Diagrams  of  cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton 22 

4.  Diagrams  of  cuts  of  pork ,.,--. 23 


34 


MEATS:  COMPOSITION  AND  COOKING. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  FOODS  COMPARED. 

The  food  of  man  can  not  be  healthful  and  adequate  unless  it  supplies 
the  proper  amount  of  the  different  nutritive  ingredients,  or  "nutrients." 
Practical  experience  proves  this,  and  experimental  inquiry  demonstrates 
it  as  well.  Just  what  the  functions  of  the  different  foods  are — their 
"nutritive  value  and  cost" — has  been  discussed  in  Bulletin  No.  142  of 
this  series,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  there  set  forth  is  necessary  to 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  present  bulletin. 

/  It  is  natural  to  divide  foods  into  two  classes — animal  food  and  vege- 
table food.  Not  only  is  this  division  simple  and  convenient,  as  pointing 
out  the  two  great  sources  of  man's  food,  but  the  classification  is  a  true 
one,  for  the  difference  between  animal  and  vegetable  food  is  very  strik- 
ing in  appearance,  composition,  and  value  in  the  economy  of  life. 
It  is  true  that  many  of  the  chemical  compounds  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  these  two  classes  of  food  are  either  alike  or  quite  simi- 
lar; but  in  general  the  vegetable  foods  contain  large  amounts  of  carbo- 
h}^drates — such  as  sugar,  starch,  woody  fiber,  etc. — while  the  animal 
foods,  and  meat  in  particular,  contain  only  small  amounts  of  these 
carbohydrates.  As  regards  the  fats  and  nitrogenous  matters  or  "pro- 
tein," the  case  is  reversed;  for  vegetable  foods  have  comparatively 
little  of  these  two  classes  of  nutrients,  while  meats  have  relatively 
very  large  amounts. 

The  value  of  meats  as  food,  therefore,  depends  on  the  presence  of  two 
classes  of  nutrients,  protein  and  fat.  The  protein  is  essential  for  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  the  body.  Both  protein  and  fat  yield 
muscular  power  and  maintain  the  temperature.  It  is  possible  to  com- 
bine the  fat  of  animal  foods  with  the  protein  so  as  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  body  without  waste,  but  the  vegetable  foods  contain 
nutrients  more  especially  adapted  for  the  production  of  energy. 

284456  s 


Another  difference  between  animal  and  vegetable  foods  is  in  their 
digestibility.  The  compounds  contained  in  the  animal  foods  are,  of 
course,  very  much  like  those  of  our  bodies,  and  therefore  need  but  little 
change  before  they  are  ready  for  use.  The  vegetable  compounds,  on 
the  other  hand,  require  much  greater  changes  before  they  can  be  assimi- 
lated. They  are  less  readily  and  less  completely  digested  than  the 
animal  foods.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  nutrients  of 
vegetable  foods  are  often  inclosed  in  cells  with  woody  walls,  which 
resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and  in  part  to  the  action  of  the 
woody  fiber  in  irritating  the  lining  of  the  intestine,  and  thus  hastening 
the  food  through  the  intestine  before  the  digestive  juices  have  time  to 
act  thoroughly  upon  the  food.  Indeed,  the  presence  of  the  woody  fiber 
frequently  prevents  the  complete  digestion  and  absorption  not  only  of 
the  nutrients  contained  in  the  vegetable  foods,  but  also  of  those  con- 
tained in  the  animal  foods  eaten  at  the  same  time. 

STRUCTURE  OF  MEATS. 

In  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  here  used,  meat  consists  of  the 
muscular  tissue,  or  lean,  and  the  varying  quantities  of  fat  which  are 
found  in  the  different  parts,  as  between  and  within  membranes  and  ten- 
dons. Besides  the  fat  ordinarily  visible  there  is  always  present  more 
or  less  of  fat  in  particles  too  small  to  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
lean  which  surrounds  it.  These  particles  can,  however,  be  readily 
obtained  by  chemical  methods  in  quantities  sufficient  to  be  seen  and 
weighed. 

The  lean  part  of  meat  has  practically  the  same  final  structure  regard- 
less of  its  kind  and  its  muscular  tissue.  All  muscular  tissue  is  made 
up  of  prism  shaped  bundles,  which  can  be  divided  into  smaller  and 
smaller  bundles,  until  finally  the  muscle  fibers  or  tubes  are  reached. 
These  irregular  tubes  are  so  small  that  they  are 'invisible  to  the  unaided 
eye.  They  vary  in  diameter  from  ^  to  ^^  of  an  inch. 

These  muscle  fibers  or  tubes  are  held  together  in  bundles  by  means 
of  connective  tissue,  and  the  invisible  fat  is  stored  between  and  inside 
the  different  fibers  and  bundles  of  fibers.  Each  of  the  bundles  of 
muscle  fibers,  seen  when  a  piece  of  meat  is  cut  "across  the  grain,"  as 
in  a  round  steak,  is  made  up  of  hundreds  of  the  muscle  tubes. 

The  envelope  or  wall  of  each  tube  is  a  very  delicate,  elastic  mem- 
brane, composed  of  nitrogenous  material.  The  walls  themselves  are 
quite  permanent,  but  their  contents  are  continual!}7  undergoing  change 
and  renewal. 

COMPOSITION  OF  MEATS. 

As  regards  composition,  the  meats  found  in  the  markets  consist  of 
the  lean  or  muscular  tissue,  connective  tissue  or  gristle,  fatty  tissue, 

34 


5 

blood  vessels,  nerves,  bone,  etc.  No  general  statement  can  be  made 
with  regard  to  the  proportion  in  which  these  substances  occur,  as  it  is 
found  to  vary  greatly  with  the  kind  of  animal,  with  different  "cuts" 
from  the  same  animal,  and  with  many  other  conditions. 

REFUSE,  AS  BONE,  SKIN",  ETC. 

Nearly  all  meats  bought  and  sold  in  the  markets  contain  some  por- 
tions not  suitable  for  eating,  which  may  properly  be  designated  as 
refuse.  Some  of  these,  as  bone,  contain  some  nutriment,  and  may  be 
utilized  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  making  soups,  and  perhaps  in 
some  other  ways;  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  thrown  away. 

It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  refuse  and  "waste."  As  the 
term  is  ordinarily  used,  any  portion  considered  unsuitable  for  eating 
would  be  designated  as  refuse.  At  another  time  or  under  other  con- 
ditions, it  might  be  desirable  to  use  for  food  the  portion  which  was 
before  considered  useless.  Such  portions,  therefore,  are  not  refuse  in 
the  proper  meaning  of  the  term.  They  are  waste.  Some  parts  of 
meat,  however,  from  their  lack  of  nutrients  or  from  the  impossibility 
of  preparing  them  for  food,  are  and  always  will  be  useless,  and  these 
portions  we  may  properly  call  refuse.  As  population  increases  there 
is,  however,  an  increasing  tendency  to  utilize  portions  of  meats  which 
have  hitherto  been  thrown  away.  If  our  classification  is  to  be  a  true 
one,  therefore, we  must  narrow  the  use  of  the  term  "refuse"  from  its 
generally  too-broad  application  and  must  cover  much  of  its  popular 
meaning  by  the  term  "waste."  The  skin  of  fish  and  poultry,  "rind" 
of  pork,  case  of  sausages,  etc.,  are  illustrations  of  materials  which 
might  by  one  person  be  classed  as  refuse  and  by  another  be  consid- 
ered edible  and  thus  be  classed  as  waste  if  they  were  rejected  at  the 
table. 

In  ordinary  meats  the  chief  refuse  is  bone.  The  percentage  of  bone 
varies  so  greatly  that  no  precise  statement  can  be  made.  In  many 
species  of  fish,  bone  constitutes  more  than  one-half  the  dressed  weight. 
In  some  cuts  of  meat,  on  the  other  hand,  notably  the  round  of  beef, 
slice  of  ham,  and  similar  cuts  in  other  animals,  there  may  not  be  more 
than  2  or  3  per  cent  of  bone,  and  in  still  other  cuts,  as  shoulder  clod, 
there  will  be  no  bone  at  all. 

In  general,  the  younger  the  animal  the  larger  the  relative  proportion 
of  bone,  and  with  increase  in  fatness  there  is  a  relative  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  bone. 

The  following  diagram  shows  graphically  the  variations  in  the  refuse, 
chiefly  bone,  in  different  kinds  and  cuts  of  meats. 


The  smallest  and  largest  percentages  of  refuse  found  in  different  kinds  and  cuts  of  ineats, 


Kind  of  meat. 

Percent. 

Comparative  scale. 

Beef: 
Side 

j  from  12 

| 

Sirloin 

Ito       21 
ffrom    4 

:  — 

Round 

tto       26 
ffrom    4 

' 

BB 

tto       11 

Shoulder  and  clod.. 

ffrom    5 
tto       28 

mmm 

Veal: 

Side 

(from  19 

I^MUHOMM 

Chops 

Ito       25 
ffrom  14 

•MBnoamHBMMM 

Cutlet  

Ito       20 
rfrom  13 

••••••••• 

Mutton: 
Side 

ffrom  13 

_ 

\to       23 

Chops  

ffrom  11 

tto       20 

Lee 

ffrom  12 

tto       24 

.* 

Pork: 
Chops  

ffrom  12 

1 

Ito       24 

piYinVed  hftTn 

ffrom    8 

mttmt 

Halibut  steak 

tto       14 
ffrom  11 

=r 

Cod  

tto       23 
ffrom  26 

—mm—mm, 

•••^•••••••••i 

\to       34 

Mnr>V«»ral 

ffrom  34 

(to       58 

Ito       59 

tto       88 

ffrom  40 

tto       45 

ffrom  44 

\to        61 

(6) 

WATER. 

Meats  contain  large  and  varying  amounts  of  water.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  mastication,  swallowing,  etc.,  of  course  this  is  better  than  if 
the  meat  were  dry;  but  the  water  contained  in  flesh  has  no  greater 
value  as  food  than  other  water.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  greater 
the  amount  of  water  in  a  given  weight  of  food  the  less  is  its  relative 
nutritive  value,  for  it  will  contain  a  less  quantity  of  nutritive  material. 
Fish  and  oysters  have  relatively  more  water  than  most  other  meats. 
In  general,  the  greater  the  amount  of  fat  in  a  given  cut  the  less  is  the 
amount  of  water.  For  instance,  a  lean  cut  of  beef  may  have  75  per 
cent  of  water,  while  a  fat  cut  from  the  same  animal  may  not  contain 
more  than  50  per  cent. 

The  diagram  on  page  8  illustrates  the  variations  in  the  quantity  of 
water  in  the  edible  portions  of  different  kinds  and  cuts  of  meats. 

FATS. 

All  meats  contain  some  fat,  partly  stored  in  quantities  so  large  as  to 
be  readily  seen,  and  partly  distributed  in  such  small  particles  that  it  is 
only  by  chemical  means  that  it  can  be  obtained  in  quantities  sufficient 
to  be  appreciated.  In  the  flesh  of  some  animals,  as  cod  and  other 
white-meated  fish,  and  in  chicken  (}Toung  fowl),  rabbit,  and  veal,  there 
is  little  or  no  visible  fat.  In  a  very  fat  ox,  on  the  other  hand,  one- 
fourth  of  the  weight  of  meat  may  be  visible  fat,  and,  in  the  case  of  fat 
hogs,  more  than  half  the  weight  may  be  fat.  No  flesh  is  so  lean  as  not 
to  contain  at  least  minute  portions  of  fat.  Very  lean  flesh,  as  dried 
beef,  may  not  have  more  than  3  per  cent  of  fat,  while  fat  pork  may 
contain  more  than  90  per  cent. 

Fat  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  food.  It  is  used  in  the  body  to  form 
fatty  tissue  and  is  consumed  as  fuel,  thus  serving  to  maintain  the 
animal  temperature  and  to  yield  energy  in  the  form  of  muscular  and 
other  power.  It  is  the  most  concentrated  form  in  which  the  fuel  con- 
stituents of  food  are  found.  Its  fuel  value  is  two  and  one-fourth  times 
that  of  protein  or  the  carbohydrates.  In  other  words,  1  pound  of  fat 
yields  as  much  heat  when  burned  as  2i  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  such 
as  starch,  sugar,  etc.  The  fat  of  animal  foods  might  be  so  supplied 
that,  together  with  animal  protein,  all  the  needs  of  the  body  could  be 
met.  The  fuel  constituents  of  vegetable  foods  are,  however,  better 
adapted  to  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  energy  required  by  the  body. 

The  diagram  on  page  9  illustrates  the  variations  in  the  percentage 
of  fats  in  the  edible  portions  of  different  kinds  and  cuts  of  meats. 

84 


The  smallest  and  largest  percentages  of  water  found  in  the  edible  portion  of  different 

kinds  and  cuts  of  meat. 


Kind  of  meat. 

Per  cent. 

Comparative  scale. 

Beef: 
Side  

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
\to 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

/from 
tto 

48 
72 

51 
75 

57 
75 

61 

74 

62 

75 

69 

74 

61 
75 

67 
77 

39 
59 

31 
56 

52 
68 

38 
60 

22 

57 

0 
12 

70 
79 

81 

84 

64 

Sirloin  

Round  

Hind  shank  

Shoulderandclod 

Veal: 
Side  

Chops  

Cutlet  

Mutton: 
Side  

Chops  .  .    

Leg  

Pork: 
Chops  

Smoked  ham  — 
Fat,  salt  . 

__ 



Halibut  steak  

Cod  

Mackerel 

79 

65 
74 

82 

Shad  
Oysters  

Long  clams 

91 

85 
86 

79 

Lobster  

(8) 

The  smallest  and  largest  percentages  of  fat  in  the  edible  portion  of  different  kinds  and 

cuts  of  meat. 


Kind  of  meat. 

Per  cent. 

Comparative  scale. 

Beef: 
Side  

("from     6 

— 

Sirloin  

\to         36 
/from      9 

_ 

Round  

/from     3 

. 

Hind  shank  

/from     4 

(to         19 

m 

Shoulder  clod  

Veal: 
Side  

/from      1 
tto         22 

/from      6 

3— 

Chops 

\to         10 
/from      5 

—  — 

Cutlet  

\to         19 
/from      1 

i 

Mutton: 
Side  

\to         12 
x 
/from    23 

Chops  

ffrom    26 

Itn            SQ 

Leg  

/from    12 
Ito         30 

,___ 

Pork: 

Chops  

ffrom    19 

Smoked  ham  

/from    17 
Ito         57 

Fat,  salt  

/from    83 

Halibut  steak  

/from      2 

• 

Cod 

\to         10 
/from      .  3 

Mackerel  

(to           .5 

/from     2 

i 

• 

Shad    

\to         16 
/from      7 

•^MHMH 

Oysters 

\to          14 
/from      .6 

Long  clams  

\to          2 

/from     1 

• 
I 

Lobster             

\to         1 

/from       3 

v 

tto            2 

(9) 

30398— No.  34—08 2 


10 

NITROGENOUS  CONSTITUENTS  (PROTEIN). 

There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  nitrogenous  compounds  in  flesh, 
and  an  almost  hopeless  confusion  exists  in  their  classification  and  in 
the  names  assigned  to  the  various  classes  by  different  chemists. 
Chemists  are  quite  generally  agreed,  however,  in  designating  the  total 
nitrogenous  substance  as  protein.  These  compounds  containing  nitro- 
gen may  be  arranged  in  the  following  three  groups  or  classes: 

PROTEIN: 

Albuminoids,  as  albumen  (white  of  eggs);  casein  (curd)  of  milk;  myosin,  the 

basis  of  muscle  (lean  meat) ;  gluten  of  wheat,  etc. 
Gelatinoids,  as  collogen  of  tendons  and  ossein  of  bones,  which  yield  gelatin  or 

glue,  etc. 
Nitrogenous  extractives. — Meats  and  fish  contain  very  small  quantities  of  so-called 

extractives.     They  include  creatin  and  allied  compounds,  sometimes  called 

meat  bases,  and  are  the  chief  ingredients  of  beef  tea  and  meat  extract. 

The  nitrogenous  compounds  of  meats  are  made  up  chiefly  of  albumi- 
noids and  gelatinoids.  The  albuminoids  are  so  called  because  they 
resemble  albumen  or  white  of  egg  in  their  properties,  and  the  gelati- 
noid  substances  are  so  named  because  of  their  similarity  to  gelatin. 
They  are  easily  changed  into  gelatin  by  the  action  of  hot  water  or 
steam,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  gelatin  and  glue  from  bones. 

The  value  of  meats  as  food  is  chiefly  due  to  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds which  they  contain,  and  of  these  the  most  valuable  are  the 
albuminoids.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  very  similar  in  com- 
position to  the  nitrogenous  compounds  of  the  body,  and  are  therefore 
easily  digested  and  assimilated.  Experiments  with  sheep,  swine,  dogs, 
and  other  animals  seem  to  show  that  feeding  rich,  nitrogenous  foods 
considerably  increases  the  percentage  of  albuminoids  in  the  flesh. 

Very  different  views  have  been  held  at  different  times  as  to  the 
value  of  gelatin  as  a  food.  At  one  time  it  was  considered  nearly  as 
valuable  as  the  albuminoids  themselves;  but  later,  from  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  "French  Gelatin  Commission,"  it  fell  into  disrepute  and 
was  held  to  have  almost  no  food  value.  Later  and  better  conducted 
experiments,  however,  have  demonstrated  that  gelatin,  when  combined 
with  albuminoids  and  extractives,  has  a  very  considerable  nutritive 
value  and  serves  to  economize  the  albuminoids. 

The  last  class,  known  as  nitrogenous  extractives,  or  meat  bases,  are 
so  called  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  dissolved  out 
(extracted)  by  water.  They  are  formed  by  the  decomposition  (cleavage) 
of  albuminoids  and  probably  gelatinoids.  They  consist  largely  of 
creatin  and  creatinin,  substances  which  somewhat  resemble  thein  and 
caffein,  the  active  principles  of  tea  and  coffee.  They  are  of  little 
value  as  food,  but  they  give  flavor  to  meats,  and  are  therefore  of  great 
importance.  They  will  be  referred  to  again  when  we  come  to  consider 
the  flavor  of  meats,  soups,  and  meat  extracts. 

The  lean  of  meat  has,  in  round  numbers,  about  20  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein, or,  weight  for  weight,  about  five  times  as  much  as  milk.  The  flesh 
at 


II 

of  fowls,  especially  wild  fowl,  has  on  the  average  more  protein  than 
beef,  and  the  flesh  of  fish  has  less. 

While  protein  is  the  most  important  and  valuable  ingredient  of  food, 
lean  flesh  is,  nevertheless,  a  one-sided  diet,  and  to  make  a  well-balanced 
ration  for  man  the  addition  of  foods  containing  carbon,  such  as  fat, 
starches,  sugar,  etc.,  is  necessary. 

The  diagram  on  page  12  illustrates  the  variations  in  protein  in  the 
edible  portions  of  different  kinds  and  cuts  of  meats. 

CARBOHYDRATES  AND  ASH. 

Although  carbohydrates  occur  in  considerable  quantities  in  other 
foods,  flesh  contains  but  a  small  amount — only  a  fraction  of  1  per 
cent — and  that  chiefly  in  the  form  of  glycogen,  or  muscle  sugar.  In 
some  of  the  organs,  notably  the  liver,  there  are  considerable  quantities 
of  glycogen. 

Meats  also  contain  more  or  less  of  mineral  matters  (ash)  which  have 
value  as  food.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  phosphates  of 
potash,  lime,  and  magnesia.  These  are  used  chiefly  in  the  formation 
of  bone. 

TEXTURE  (TOUGHNESS)  OF  MEATS. 

Whether  meats  are  tough  or  tender  depends  upon  two  things—  the 
character  of  the  walls  of  the  muscle  tubes  and  the  character  of  the 
connective  tissues  which  bind  the  tubes  and  muscles  together.  In 
young  and  well-nourished  animals  the  tube  walls  are  thin  and  delicate, 
and  the  connective  tissue  is  small  in  amount.  As  the  animals  grow 
older,  or  are  made  to  work  (and  this  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of 
poorly  nourished  animals),  the  walls  of  the  muscle  tubes  and  the  con- 
nective tissues  become  thick  and  hard.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
flesh  of  young,  well-fed  animals  is  tender  and  easily  masticated,  while 
the  flesh  of  old,  hard-worked,  or  poorly  fed  animals  is  often  so  tough 
that  prolonged  boiling,  or  roasting,  seems  to  have  but  little  effect  on  it. 

After  slaughtering,  meats  undergo  marked  changes  in  texture.  These 
changes  can  be  grouped  under  three  classes  or  stages.  In  the  first 
stage,  when  the  meat  is  just  slaughtered,  the  flesh  is  soft,  juicy,  and  quite 
tender.  In  the  next  stage  the  flesh  stiffens  and  the  meat  becomes 
hard  and  tough.  This  condition  is  known  as  rigor  mortis  and  continues 
until  the  third  stage,  when  the  first  changes  of  decomposition  set  in. 
In  hot  climates  the  meat  is  commonly  eaten  in  either  the  first  or  second 
stage.  In  cold  climates  it  is  seldom  eaten  before  the  second  stage,  and 
generally,  in  order  to  lessen  the  toughness,  it  is  allowed  to  enter  the 
third  stage,  when  it  becomes  soft  and  tender,  and  acquires  added  flavor. 
The  softening  is  due  in  part  to  the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  which  acts 
upon  the  connective  tissue.  The  same  effect  may  be  produced,  though 
more  rapidly,  by  macerating  the  meat  with  weak  vinegar.  Meat  is 
sometimes  made  tender  by  cutting  the  flesh  into  thin  slices  and  pound- 
ing it  across  the  cut  ends  until  the  fibers  are  broken. 

34 


The  smallest  and 


largest  percentages  of  protein  in  the  edible  portion  of  different  kinds 
and  cuts  of  meats. 


Kind  of  meat. 

Perc 

ent.                                            Comparative  scale. 

Beef: 
Side  

("from 

15  p— 

Sirloin  

\to 
ffrom 

10    "••••• 

Round  

\to 

/from 

Hind  shank 

(to 
/from 

" 

Shoulder  clod  

Veal: 
Side      

[to 

/from 
\to 

/from 

s 

Chops 

(to 
/from 

"1 

Cutlet  

(to 

ffrom 

"1 

Mutton: 
Side  

\to 
ffrom 

Chops 

\to 
/from 

Leg  

\to 

[from 

„  

Pork: 
Chops  

(.10 
/from 

Smoked  ham  

/from 
\to 

Fat  salt 

ffrom 

1  i 

\to 

Halibut  steak  

Cod  .    .. 

\to 

/from 

19p^"    ' 

Mackerel 

\to 
ffrom 

![==" 

Shad  

\to 
/from 

19  1 

Oysters. 

\to 
/from 

4- 

Long  clams 

[to 
/from 

9       BHBs^a 

8    "•• 

Lobster 

\to 
/from 

9     •mmmm, 

ito 

(12) 

34 


13 

FLAVOR  OF  MEATS. 

The  toughness  or  tenderness  of  meat,  as  has  been  stated  above,  is 
dependent  upon  the  walls  of  the  muscle  tubes  and  the  connective 
tissue.  The  flavor,  however,  depends  largely  upon  the  kinds  and 
amounts  of  "nitrogenous  extractives "  which  the  tubes  contain.  Pork 
and  mutton  are  deficient  in  extractives,  and  what  flavor  they  possess 
is  due  largely  to  the  fats  contained  in  them.  The  flesh  of  birds  and  of 
most  game  is  very  rich  in  extractives/  which  accounts  ior  its  high 
flavor.  In  general  the  flavor  of  any  particular  meat  is  largely  modified 
by  the  condition  of  the  animal  when  slaughtered,  and  by  its  food,  age, 
breed,  etc.  We  have  seen  that  the  flesh  of  young  animals  is  more 
tender,  but  it  is  also  true  that  it  is  not  so  highly  flavored  as  that  from 
more  mature  animals.  In  most  cases,  also,  the  flesh  of  males  is  more 
highly  flavored  than  that  of  females.  There  are  two  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  The  flesh  of  the  goose  is  more  highly  flavored  than  that  of  the 
gander,  and  in  the  case  of  pork  there  is  little  difference  between  the 
flesh  of  the  male  and  that  of  the  female.  Castration,  as  illustrated  in 
the  familiar  example  of  the  capon,  makes  the  flesh  more  tender,  fatter, 
and  better  flavored. 

With  the  exception  of  fish,  the  flesh  of  animals  which  feed  exclu- 
sively upon  fish  or  flesh  has  a  strong,  disagreeable  taste,  and  is  eaten 
only  by  uncivilized  people  or  those  in  great  need.  As  regards  ordinary 
m£at,  however,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  nitrogenous  extractives,  and 
hence  the  flavor,  depend  mainly  upon  the  age  of  the  animal  and  the 
character  of  its  food. 

Meat  which  is  allowed  to  hang  and  ripen  develops  added  flavors.  In 
the  first  stages  of  decomposition  compounds  quite  similar  to  the  nitrog- 
enous extractives  are  formed,  and  it  is  to  these  that  the  added  flavors 
are  due.  Game  is  sometimes  allowed  to  hang  until  the  decomposition 
changes  have  gone  so  far  as  to  be  offensive  to  one  whose  taste  is  not 
educated  to  enjoy  the  flavor  of  uhigh"  meat. 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  MEATS. 

We  must  remember  that,  as  in  the  case  of  other  foods,  the  value  of 
meats  does  not  depend  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  nutrients  which 
they  contain,  but  to  some  extent  upon  the  amount  of  these  nutrients 
which  the  body  can  digest  and  use  for  its  support.  Digestion  proper 
consists  of  the  changes  which  the  food  undergoes  in  the  digestive  tract, 
where  the  digestible  portion  is  prepared  to  be  taken  up  by  the  blood 
and  lymph.  These  changes  are  chemical  processes,  and  we  can  deter- 
mine quite  readily  by  experiment  how  much  of  each  nutrient  will  be 
digested,  but  this  line  of  research  is  new  and  the  methods  are  not  yet 
perfect^  matured. 

Comparatively  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  percentages  of 
the  different  meats  which  are  digested;  but  the  facts  so  far  obtained 

84 


14 

seem  to  indicate  that  flesh  of  all  kinds,  either  raw  or  cooked,  is  quite 
completely  digested  by  a  healthy  man.  Rubner  found  that  when  given 
in  quantities  of  not  more  than  2  pounds  per  day  all  but  3  per  cent  of 
the  dry  matter  of  roasted  beef  was  digested  by  a  healthy  man.  From 
other  experiments  roasted  flesh  seems  to  be  rather  more  completely 
digested  than  either  raw  or  boiled  meat,  but  raw  meat  is  more  easily 
digested  than  cooked  (boiled  or  roasted). 

A  far  larger  number  of  experiments  and  observations  have  been 
made  upon  the  digestive  processes  which  pertain  to  the  stomach  than 
upon  complete  digestion.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  hygienic  importance 
of  stomach  digestion  (for  a  large  part  of  the  digestive  disorders  occur 
in  the  stomach)  and  partly  to  the  ease  with  which  observations  of 
stomach  digestion  can  be  made.  Much  is  said  about  "  ease  of  diges- 
tion," by  which  is  usually  meant  the  rapidity  with  which  certain  foods 
pass  out  of  the  stomach  into  the  intestine,  where  the  principal  work 
of  digestion  actually  takes  place.  Roast  chicken  and  veal  are  tender, 
easily  masticated,  well  flavored  and  appetizing,  and,  so  far  as  the  stomach 
or  gastric  digestion  is  concerned,  are  easily  and  rapidly  digested.  This 
agrees  with  the  practice  of  using  the  so-called  "  white  meats"  in  diets 
for  the  sick  room.  The  rapidity  of  gastric  digestion  of  this  class  of 
foods  is  due  to  the  tenderness  of  the  muscular  tissues,  and  to  the  fact 
that  this  kind  of  meat  contains  almost  no  fat.  Fat  meats,  as  beef  and 
mutton,  are  much  less  quickly  passed  out  of  the  stomach,  and  gastric 
digestion  in  the  case  of  fat  pork  is  especially  difficult.  Although 
gastric  digestion  is  important,  it  is  by  no  means  a  measure  of  the 
digestibility  of  a  food. 

The  question  of  the  digestibility  of  food  in  the  broad  sense  is  a  very 
complex  one,  and  there  is  much  room  for  investigation  in  this  field  of 
research  in  learning  the  quantities  of  nutrients  which  are  digested 
from  different  kinds  of  meats,  in  studying  the  effects  of  cooking,  in 
determining  the  influence  of  different  substances  and  conditions  upon 
digestion,  and  in  the  study  of  numerous  other  questions.  Until  these 
investigations  and  experiments  shall  have  been  made,  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  affirm  much  more  about  the  digestibility  of  meats  than  the 
simple  but  important  statement  that  nearly  all  the  protein  and  about 
95  per  cent  of  the  fats  are  digested  by  the  average  person. 

THE  COOKING  OF  MEATS. 

Uncivilized  man  differs  from  civilized  man  in  no  more  striking  way 
than  in  the  preparation  of  food.  The  former  takes  his  nourishment  as 
it  is  offered  by  nature;  the  latter  prepares  his  food  before  eating,  and 
in  ways  which  are  the  more  perfect  the  higher  his  culture. 

Meat  is  rarely  eaten  raw  by  civilized  people.  For  the  most  part  it  is 
either  roasted,  stewed,  fried,  or  boiled.  Among  the  chief  objects  of 
cooking  are  the  loosening  and  softening  of  the  tissues,  which  facilitates 

84 


15 

digestion  by  exposing  them  more  fully  to  the  action  of  the  digestive 
juices.  Another  important  object  is  to  kill  parasites,  and  thus  render 
harmless  organisms  that  might  otherwise  expose  the  eater  to  great 
risks.  Minor,  but  by  no  means  unimportant,  objects  are  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  albumen  and  blood  so  as  to  render  the  meat  more  accepta- 
ble to  the  sight,  and  the  development  and  improvement  of  the  natural 
flavor,  which  is  often  accomplished  in  part  by  the  addition  of  condi- 
ments. 

Flavoring  materials  and  an  agreeable  appearance  do  not  directly 
increase  the  thoroughness  of  digestion,  but  serve  to  stimulate  the 
digestive  organs  to  greater  activity.  As  regards  the  actual  amount 
digested,  this  stimulation  is  probably  not  of  so  great  moment  as  is 
commonly  supposed.  Meat  that  has  been  extracted  with  water  so  as 
to  be  entirely  tasteless  has  been  found  in  actual  experiment  to  be  as 
quickly  and  completely  digested  as  an  equal  weight  of  meat  roasted  in 
the  usual  way. 

In  general,  it  is  probably  true  that  cooking  diminishes  the  ease  of 
digestion  of  most  meats.  Cooking  certainly  can  not  add  to  the  amount 
of  nutritive  material  in  meat;  and  it  may,  as  we  shall  see,  remove  con- 
siderable quantities  of  the  nutrients. 

BOILING. 

If  it  is  desired  to  heat  the  meat  enough  to  kill  parasites  or  bacteria  ia 
the  inner  portions  of  the  cut,  the  piece  must  be  exposed  to  the  action 
of  heat  for  a  long  time.  Ordinary  methods  of  cooking  are  seldom 
sufficient.  In  a  piece  of  meat  weighing  10  pounds  the  temperature  of 
the  interior,  after  boiling  four  hours,  was  only  190°  F.  The  inner  tem- 
perature of  meat  when  roasting  has  been  observed  to  vary  from  160° 
to  200°  F. ,  according  to  the  size  of  the  piece.  In  experiments  upon  the 
canning  of  meat  it  was  found  that  when  large  and  even  small  cans  were 
kept  for  some  time  in  a  salt-water  bath  at  a  temperature  considerably 
above  the  boiling  point  of  water,  the  interior  temperature  of  the  meat 
rose  to  208°  in  some  cases  and  only  165°  in  others.  Large  cans  of  meat 
are  more  liable  to  have  bad  spots  than  smaller  cans,  because  the  heat 
in  them  is  not  sufficient  to  destroy  the  bacteria  or  other  organisms  that 
cause  the  meat  to  decompose. 

If  meat  is  placed  in  cold  water,  part  of  the  organic  salts,  the  soluble 
albumen,  and  the  extractives  or  flavoring  matters  will  be  dissolved  out. 
At  the  same  time  small  portions  of  lactic  acid  are  formed,  which  act 
upon  the  meat  and  change  some  of  the  insoluble  matters  into  materials 
which  may  also  be  dissolved  out.  The  extent  of  this  action  and  the 
quantity  of  materials  which  actually  go  into  the  solution  depend  upon 
three  things — the  amount  of  surface  exposed  to  the  water,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water,  and  the  length  of  the  time  of  the  exposure. 
The  smaller  the  pieces  the  longer  the  time,  or  the  hotter  the  water  the 


16 

richer  will  be  the  broth  and  the  poorer  the  meat.  If  the  water  is 
heated  gradually,  more  and  more  of  the  soluble  materials  are  dissolved. 
At  a  temperature  of  about  134°  F.  the  soluble  albumen  will  begin  to 
coagulate,  and  at  160°  F.  the  dissolved  albumen  will  rise  as  a  brown- 
ish scum  to  the  top,  and  the  liquid  will  become  clear.  Upon  heating 
still  higher,  the  connective  tissues  begin  to  be  changed  into  gelatin, 
and  are  partly  dissolved  out,  while  the  insoluble  albuminoids  are 
coagulated.  The  longer  the  action  of  the  hot  water  continues,  the 
tougher  and  more  tasteless  the  meat  becomes,  but  the  better  the  broth. 
Treated  in  this  way  flesh  may  lose  over  40  per  cent  by  weight.  This 
loss  is  principally  water,  but  from  5  to  8  per  cent  may  be  made  up  of 
the  soluble  albumen,  gelatin,  mineral  matters,  organic  acids,  muscle 
sugar,  and  flavoring  materials.  Part  of  the  melted  fat  also  goes  into 
the  broth. 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  assume  that  the  nearly  tasteless  mass 
of  fibers  which  is  left  undissolved  by  the  water  has  no  nutritive  value. 
This  tasteless  material  has  been  found  to  be  as  easily  and  completely 
digested  as  the  same  weight  of  ordinary  roast.  It  contains  nearly  all 
the  protein  of  the  meat,  and,  if  it  is  properly  combined  with  vegeta- 
bles, salt,  and  flavoring  materials,  makes  an  agreeable  as  well  as  nutri- 
tive food. 

If  a  piece  of  meat  is  plunged  into  boiling  water  or  very  hot  fat  the 
albumen  on  the  entire  surface  of  the  meat  is  quickly  coagulated,  and 
the  enveloping  crust  thus  formed  resists  the  dissolving  action  of  water 
and  prevents  the  escape  of  the  juices  and  flavoring  matters.  Thus 
cooked,  the  meat  retains  most  of  its  flavoring  matters  and  has  the 
desired  meaty  taste.  The  resulting  broth  is  correspondingly  poor. 

The. foregoing  statements  will  be  of  much  help  in  the  rational  cook- 
ing of  meats  in  water.  The  treatment  depends  largely  upon  what  it  is 
desired  to  do.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  rich  broth  and  have  a  juicy, 
highly  flavored  piece  of  boiled  meat  at  the  same  time.  If  the  meat 
alone  is  to  be  used,  the  cooking  in  water  should  be  as  follows:  Plunge 
the  cut  at  once  into  a  generous  supply  of  boiling  water  and  keep  the 
water  at  the  boiling  point,  or  as  near  boiling  as  possible,  for  ten  minutes, 
in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen  and  seal  the  pores  of  the  meat;  the 
coating  thus  formed  will  prevent  the  solvent  action  of  the  water  and 
the  escape  of  the  soluble  albumen  and  juices  from  the  inner  portions 
of  the  meat.  But  if  the  action  of  the  boiling  water  should  be  contin- 
ued, the  whole  interior  of  the  meat  would,  in  time,  be  brought  near  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  all  the  albumen  would  be  coagulated 
and  rendered  hard.  Instead  of  keeping  the  water  at  the  boiling  point 
(212°  F.),  therefore,  the  temperature  should  be  allowed  to  fall  to  about 
180°  F.,  when  the  meat  could  be  thoroughly  cooked  without  becoming 
hard.  A  longer  time  will  be  required  for  cooking  meat  in  this  way, 
but  the  albumen  will  not  be  firmly  coagulated,  and  the  flesh  will  be 

84 


17 

tender  and  juicy  instead  of  tough  and  dry,  as  will  be  the  case  when 
the  water  is  kept  boiling,  or  nearly  boiling,  during  the  entire  time  of 
cooking. 

In  boiling  sections  of  delicate  fish,  as  salmon,  cod,  or  halibut,  the 
plunging  into  boiling  water  is  objectionable  because  the  motion  of  the 
boiling  water  tends  to  break  the  fish  into  small  pieces.  Fish  should  be 
first  put  into  water  that  is  on  the  point  of  boiling.  The  water  should 
be  kept  at  this  temperature  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  allowed  to  fall 
to  180°  F.,  as  in  the  case  of  meats. 

STEWING. 

If  both  the  broth  and  the  meat  are  to  be  used,  the  process  of  cooking 
should  be  quite  different  from  that  outlined  for  boiling  meat.  Stewing 
is  in  this  country  a  much  undervalued  method  of  cooking.  This  is 
probably  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  stewing  is  generally  very  improp- 
erly done,  and  partly  to  the  general  aversion  which  Americans,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  have  to  "made  dishes"  of  any  kind.  This 
aversion  probably  has  its  origin  in  a  false  notion  which  spurns  economy 
or  any  attempt  at  economy  in  diet. 

In  stewing,  the  meat  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  so  as  to  present 
relatively  as  large  a  surface  as  possible,  and,  instead  of  being  quickly 
plunged  into  hot  water,  should  be  put  into  cold  water  in  order  that 
much  of  the  juices  and  flavoring  materials  may  be  dissolved.  The 
temperature  should  then  be  slowly  raised  until  it  reaches  about  180° 
F.,  where  it  should  be  kept  for  some  hours.  Treated  in  this  way,  the 
broth  will  be  rich  and  the  meat  still  tender  and  juicy. 

If  the  watej*  is  made  much  hotter  than  180°  F.  the  meat  will  be  dry 
and  fibrous.  It  is  true  that  if  a  high  temperature  is  maintained  long 
enough  the  connective  tissues  will  be  changed  to  gelatin  and  partly 
dissolved  away,  and  the  meat  will  apparently  be  so  tender  that  if 
touched  with  a  fork  it  will  fall  to  pieces.  It  will  be  discovered,  how- 
ever, that  no  matter  how  easily  the  fibers  come  apart,  they  offer  con- 
siderable resistance  to  mastication.  The  albumen  and  fibrin  have 
become  thoroughly  coagulated,  and  while  the  fibers  have  separated 
from  each  other  the  prolonged  boiling  has  only  made  them  drier  and 

firmer. 

BROTHS,  SOUPS,  MEAT  EXTRACTS. 

The  quantities  of  the  ingredients  in  a  meat  broth  may  be  illustrated 
by  a  German  experiment.  One  pound  of  beef  and  7  ounces  of  veal  bones 
gave  about  a  pint  of  strong  broth  or  soup,  which  contained,  by  weight: 
Water,  95.2  percent;  protein,  1.2  per  cent;  fat,  1.5  per  cent;  extract- 
ives, 1.8  per  cent;  and  mineral  matters,  0.3  per  cent. 

Very  palatable  broths  can  be  made  by  using  more  water  and  adding 
savory  herbs.  Broths  thus  made  have,  of  course,  a  greater  amount  of 
water,  frequently  as  much  as  98  percent,  or  even  more,  and  the  nutrients 


18 

are  correspondingly  reduced  in  amount.  It  would  appear  from  the 
analysis  given  above  that  the  amount  of  solids  in  broths  is  generally 
small.  Consequently  their  strong  taste  and  stimulating  effect  upon  the 
nervous  system  must  be  ascribed  to  the  meat  bases  (flavoring  matters) 
and  to  the  salts  of  potash  which  they  contain.  Besides  meat  bases, 
soups  contain  more  or  less  gelatin,  varying  directly  with  the  quantity 
of  bones  used  in  the  preparation. 

The  term  meat  extract  is  commonly  applied  to  a  large  number  of 
preparations  of  very  different  character.  They  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  three  classes:  (1)  True  meat  extracts;  (2)  meat  juice 
obtained  by  pressure  and  preserved,  compounds  which  contain  dried 
pulverized  meat,  and  similar  preparations;  and  (3)  albumose  or  peptose 
preparations,  commonly  called  predigested  foods. 

The  true  meat  extract,  if  pure,  contains  little  else  besides  the  flavor- 
ing matters  of  the  meat  from  which  it  is  prepared,  together  with  such 
mineral  salts  as  may  be  dissolved  out.  It  should  contain  no  gelatin 
or  fat,  and  can  not,  from  the  way  in  which  it  is  made,  contain  any 
albumen.  It  is,  therefore,  not  a  food  at  all,  but  a  stimulant,  and 
should  be  classed  with  tea,  coffee,  and  other  allied  substances.  It 
should  never  be  administered  to  the  sick  except  as  directed  by  compe- 
tent medical  advice.  Its  strong,  meaty  taste  is  deceptive,  and  the 
person  depending  upon  it  alone  for  food  would  certainly  die  of  starvation. 
Such  meat  extracts  are  often  found  useful  in  the  kitchen  for  flavoring- 
soups,  sauces,  etc.  Broth  and  beef  tea  as  prepared  ordinarily  in  the 
household  contain  more  or  less  protein,  gelatin,  and  fat,  and  therefore 
are  foods  as  well  as  stimulants.  The  proportion  of  water  in  such  com- 
pounds is  always  very  large. 

The  preserved  meat  juice  and  similar  preparations  contain  more  or 
less  protein,  and  therefore  have  some  value  as  food. 

The  third  class  of  preparations  is  comparatively  new.  The  better 
ones  are  really  what  they  claim  to  be — predigested  foods.  They  con- 
tain the  soluble  albumoses  (peptoses),  etc.,  which  are  obtained  from 
meat  by  artificial  digestion.  Their  use  should  be  regulated  by  com- 
petent medical  advice. 

BOASTING. 

The  principal  difference  between  roasting  and  boiling  is  in  the  medium 
in  which  the  meat  is  cooked.  In  boiling,  the  flesh  to  be  cooked  is  sur- 
rounded by  boiling  water;  in  roasting,  by  hot  air,  although  in  roast- 
ing proper  much  of  the  heat  comes  to  the  joint  as  "  radiant"  heat.  In 
both  cases,  if  properly  conducted,  the  fibers  of  the  meats  are  cooked  in 
their  own  juices. 

When  the  meat  alone  is  to  be  eaten,  either  roasting,  broiling,  or  fry- 
ing in  deep  fat  is,  when  properly  done,  a  more  rational  method  than 
boiling,  for  the  juices  are  very  largely  saved.  The  shrinkage  in  a  roast 
of  meat  during  cooking  is  chiefly  due  to  a  loss  of  water.  At  the  same 


19 

time  small  amounts  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  are  driven  off  and  a,  little 
acid  is  produced  which  dissolves  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  meat. 
The  fat  undergoes  a  partial  decomposition  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin, 
and  a  little  of  it  is  volatilized. 

It  is  interesting  and  at  the  same  time  important  to  remember  that 
the  smaller  the  cut  to  be  roasted  the  hotter  should  be  the  fire.  An 
intensely  hot  fire  coagulates  the  exterior  and  prevents  the  drying  up 
of  the  meat  juices.  This  method  would  not,  however,  be  applicable 
to  large  cuts,  because  meats  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  and  a  large 
piece  of  meat  exposed  to  this  intense  heat  would  become  burned  and 
changed  to  charcoal  on  the  exterior  long  before  the  heat  could  pene- 
trate to  the  interior.  Hence  the  rule :  The  smaller  the  cut  to  be  roasted, 
the  higher  the  temperature  to  which  it  should  be  exposed. 

The  broiling  of  a  steak  or  a  chop  is  done  on  exactly  this  principle.  An 
intense  heat  should  be  applied  to  thoroughly  coagulate  the  albumen 
and  stop  the  pores,  and  thus  prevent  the  escape  of  the  juices.  A  steak 
exposed  to  an  intense  heat  for  ten  minutes  is  thoroughly  cooked,  and 
has  yet  that  rare,  juicy  appearance  which  is  so  desirable. 

CUTS  OF  MEAT.     • 

The  methods  of  cutting  sides  of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  pork  into 
parts,  and  the  terms  used  for  the  different  "cuts,"  as  these  parts  are 
commonly  called,  vary  in  different  localities.  The  analyses  here 
reported  apply  to  cuts  as  indicated  by  the  following  diagrams.  These 
show  the  positions  of  the  different  cuts,  both  in  the  live  animal  and 
in  the  dressed  carcass  as  found  in  the  markets.  The  lines  of  division 
between  the  different  cuts  will  vary  slightly,  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  local  market,  even  where  the  general  method  of  cutting  is  as  here 
indicated.  The  names  of  the  same  cuts  likewise  vary  in  different  parts 
of  the  country. 

CUTS  OF  BEEF. 

The  general  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef  is  illustrated  in 
fig.  1,  which  shows  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and 
in  a  dressed  side.  The  neck  piece  is  frequently  cut  so  as  to  include 
more  of  the  chuck  than  is  represented  by  the  diagrams.  The  shoulder 
clod  is  usually  cut  without  bone,  while  the  shoulder  (not  indicated 
in  diagram)  would  include  more  or  less  of  the  shoulder  blade  and 
of  the  upper -end  of  the  fore  shank.  Shoulder  steak  is  cut  from  the 
chuck.  In  many  localities  the  plate  is  made  to  include  all  the  parts 
of  the  forequarter  designated  on  the  diagrams  as  brisket,  cross-ribs, 
plate  and  navel,  and  different  portions  of  the  plate,  as  thus  cut,  are 
spoken  of  as  the  " brisket  end  of  plate"  and  "navel  end  of  plate." 
This  part  of  the  animal  is  largely  used  for  corning.  The  ribs  are 


20 


frequently  divided  into  first,  second,  and  third  cuts,  the  latter  lying 
nearest  the  chuck  and  being  slightly  less  desirable  than  the  former. 
The  chuck  is  sometimes  subdivided  in  a  similar  manner  the  third  cut 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Ribs. 

4.  Shoulder  clod. 

5.  Fore  shank. 

6.  Brisket. 

7.  Cross  ribs. 

8.  Plate. 

9.  Navel. 

10.  Loin. 

11.  Flank. 

12.  Rump. 

13.  Round. 

14.  Second  cut  round. 

15.  Hind  shank. 


FIG.  1. — Diagrams  of  cuts  of  beef. 


of  the  chuck  being  nearest  the  neck.  The  names  applied  to  different 
portions  of  the  loin  vary  considerably  in  different  localities.  The  part 
nearest  the  ribs  is  freqently  called  "small  end  of  loin"  or  "short 


34 


steak."  The  other  end  of  the  loin  is  called  "  hip  sirloin"  or  "  sirloin." 
Between  the  short  and  the  sirloin  is  a  portion  quite  generally  called 
the  "  tenderloin,"  for  the  reason  that  the  real  tenderloin,  the  very  tender 
strip  of  meat  lying  inside  the  loin,  is  found  most  fully  developed  in  this 
cut.  Porterhouse  steak  is  a  term  most  frequently  applied  to  either  the 
short  steak  or  the  tenderloin.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  flank 
cut  so  as  to  include  more  of  the  loin  than  is  indicated- in  the  figures,  in 
which  case  the  upper  portion  is  called  "  flank  steak."  The  larger  part 
of  the  flank  is,  however,  very  frequently  corned,  as  is  also  the  case  with 
the  rump.  In  some  markets  the  rump  is  cut  so  as  to  include  a  portion 
of  the  loin,  which  is  then  sold  as  u  rump  steak."  The  portion  of  the 
round  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  is  regarded  as  more  tender  than  that 
on  the  outside,  and  is  frequently  preferred  to  the  latter.  As  the  leg 
lies  upon  the  butcher's  table  this  inside  of  the  round  is  usually  on  the 
upper,  or  top  side,  and  is  therefore  called  "top  round."  Occasionally 
the  plate  is  called  the  "  rattle." 

CUTS  OF  VEAL. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  veal  differs  considerably  from 
that  employed  with  beef.  This  is  illustrated  by  fig.  2,  which  shows 
the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in  a  dressed  side. 


1.  Neck,  6.  Ribs.    , 

2.  Chuck.  7.  Loin. 

3.  Shoulder.  8.  Flank. 

4.  Fore  shank.  9.  Leg. 

5.  Breast.  10.  Hind  shank. 

FIG.  2. — Diagrams  of  cuts  of  veal. 


The  chuck  is  much  smaller  in  proportion,  and  frequently  no  distinction 
is  made  between  the  chuck  and  the  neck.  The  chuck  is  often  cut  so 
as  to  include  a  considerable  of  the  portion  here  designated  as  shoulder, 
following  more  nearly  the  method  adopted  for  subdividing  beef.  The 


22 


shoulder  of  veal  as  here  indicated  includes,  besides  the  portion  corre- 
sponding to  the  shoulder  in  beef,  the  larger  part  of  what  is  here  classed 
as  chuck  in  the  adult  animal.  The  under  part  of  the  forequarter, 
corresponding  to  the  plate  in  the  beef,  is  often  designated  as  breast  in 
the  veal.  The  part  of  the  veal  corresponding  to  the  rump  of  beef  is 
here  included  with  the  loin,  but  is  often  cut  to  form  part  of  the  leg. 
In  many  localities  the  fore  and  hind  shanks  of  veal  are  called  the 
"knuckles." 

CUTS  OF  LAMB  AND  MUTTON. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  a  dressed  side  of 
mutton  or  lamb  and  in  a  live  animal.  The  cuts  in  a  side  of  lamb  and 
mutton  number  but  six,  three  in  each  quarter.  The  chuck  includes 
the  ribs  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  shoulder  blades,  beyond  which  comes 
the  loin.  The  flank  is  made  to  include  all  the  under  side  of  the  animal. 
Some  butchers,  however,  make  a  larger  number  of  cuts  in  the  fore- 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Shoulder. 

4.  Flank. 

5.  Loin. 

6.  Leg. 


FIG.  3. — Diagrams  of  cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton. 

quarter,  including  a  portion  of  the  cuts  marked  "loin"  and  "chuck" 
in  fig.  3,  to  make  a  cut  designated  as  "rib,"  and  a  portion  of  the 
"flank"  and  "shoulder"  to  make  a  cut  designated  as  "brisket."  The 
term  "chops"  is  ordinarily  used  to  designate  portions  of  either  the 
loin,  ribs,  chuck  or  shoulder,  which  are  either  cut  or  "chopped"  by 
the  butcher  into  pieces  suitable  for  frying  or  broiling.  The  chuck 
and  ribs  are  sometimes  called  the  "  rack." 


CTJTS  OF  PORK. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  pork  differs  considerably  from 
that  employed  with  other  meats.  A  large  portion  of  the  carcass  of  a 
dressed  pig  consists  of  almost  clear  fat.  This  furnishes  the  cuts  which 
are  used  for  "salt  pork"  and  bacon.  Fig.  4  illustrates  a  common 
method  of  cutting  up  pork,  showing  the  relative  position  of  the  cuts 
in  the  animal  and  in  the  dressed  side.  The  cut  designated  as  "back 
cut"  is  almost  clear  fat  and  is  used  for  salting  and  pickling.  The 
"middle  cut"  is  the  portion  quite  generally  used  for  bacon  and  for 
"lean  ends"  salt  pork.  The  belly  is  salted  or  pickled  or  may  be  made 
into  sausages. 

Beneath  the  "back  cut"  are  the  ribs  and  loin,  from  which  are 
obtained  "spareribs,"  "chops,"  and  roasting  pieces,  here  designated  by 


1.  Head. 

2.  Shoulder. 

3.  Back. 

4.  Middle  cut. 

5.  Belly. 

6.  Ham. 

7.  Ribs. 

8.  Loin. 


FIG.  4.— Diagrams  of  cuts  of  pork. 

dotted  lines.  The  hams  and  shoulders  are  more  frequently  cured,  but 
are  also  sold  fresh  as  pork  "steak."  The  tenderloin  proper  is  a  com- 
paratively lean  and  very  small  strip  of  meat  lying  under  the  bones  of 
the  loin  and  usually  weighing  a  fraction  of  a  pound.  Some  fat  is 
usually  trimmed  off  from  the  hams  and  shoulders,  which  is  called 
"ham  and  shoulder  fat,"  and  is  often  used  for  sausages,  etc.  What 
is  called  "leaf  lard,"  at  least  in  some  localities,  comes  from  the  inside 
of  the  back.  It  is  the  kidney  fat. 

As  stated  above,  cuts  as  shown  in  the  diagrams  herewith  correspond 
to  those  of  which  analyses  are  reported  in  the  table  beyond,  but  do 
not  attempt  to  show  the  different  methods  of  cutting  followed  in 
markets  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

84 


24 


COMPOSITION  AND  FUEL  VALUE  OF  MEATS. 

Within  recent  years  analyses  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  meat 
have  been  made  in  this  country.  In  the  table  below,  the  average  results 
of  these  analyses  are  given.  Analyses  of  fish  are  not  included, 
because  the  subject  of  the  composition  and  nutritive  value  of  fish  is 
fully  treated  in  another  bulletin  of  this  series. a 

Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

BEEF.  FKE8H. 

Brisket: 
Edible  portion 

Perct. 

Perct. 
64.6 

Perct. 
15.8 

Per  ct. 
28.5 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 
0.9 

Cols. 
1.495 

As  purchased      .      

23.3 

41.6 

12.0 

22.3 

.6 

1,165 

Chuck,  including  shoulder: 

65  0 

19  2 

15.4 

.9 

1.005 

As  purchased                   ................ 

17.3 

54.0 

15.8 

12.6 

.7 

820 

Chuck  rib: 

66  8 

19  0 

13  4 

1.0 

920 

As  purchased                      .    ... 

19.1 

53.8 

15.3 

11.1 

.8 

755 

Flank: 
Edible  portion 

59.3 

19.6 

21.1 

.9 

1,255 

5  5 

56  1 

18.6 

19.9 

.8 

1,185 

Loin: 
Edible  portion 

61.3 

19.0 

19.1 

1.0 

1,155 

As  purchased  

13.3 

62.9 

16.4 

16.9 

.9 

1,020 

Loin  boneless  strip  as  purchased  b             . 

66.3 

17.8 

16.7 

.8 

1.035 

62  5 

19  7 

17.7 

.9 

1  115 

Loin,'  porter  house  steak:  & 

60  0 

21.9 

20.4 

1.0 

1,270 

As  purchased           ....  ................. 

12.7 

52.4 

19.1 

17.9 

.8 

1,110 

Loin,  sirloin  steak  :*> 
Edible  portion 

61  9 

18  9 

18  6 

1.0 

1  130 

As  purchased                       .  ............ 

12.8 

54.0 

16.5 

16.1 

.9 

985 

Loin,  top  of  sirloin:  & 
Edible  portion                                    

42.2 

13.8 

43.7 

0.8 

2,100 

3  2 

40.9 

13  3 

42.3 

.7 

2,030 

59  2 

16  2 

24  4 

.8 

1  330 

Loin,  trimmings  :& 
Edible  portion 

55  0 

16  9 

28.0 

.8 

1,496 

As  purchased                    ....       

48.8 

27.9 

8.5 

14.7 

.4 

780 

Navel: 
Edible  portion         

47.6 

15.6 

36.5 

.8 

1,830 

11.4 

42.2 

13.8 

32.3 

.7 

1,620 

Neck: 
Edible  portion                                    •  • 

66.3 

20.7 

12.7 

1.0 

920 

31  2 

45  3 

14.2 

9.2 

.7 

650 

Plate: 
Edible  portion 

56.3 

16.8 

26.9 

.8 

1,450 

19  8 

44  4 

13  1 

22.7 

.6 

1,200 

Ribs: 

57  0 

17.8 

24.6 

.9 

1,370 

As  purchased          

20.1 

45.3 

14.4 

20.0 

.7 

1,110 

Rib  rolls  as  purchased                       .  .  . 

64.8 

19.4 

15.5 

.9 

1,015 

Rib  trimmings: 
Edible  portion                  .    ....... 

54.7 

16.9 

28.4 

.8 

1,615 

34  1 

35.7 

11.0 

19.2 

.5 

1,015 

Ribs,  cross: 
Edible  portion 

54.9 

15.9 

28.2 

.8 

1,485 

12  5 

48  0 

13.8 

24.8 

.7 

1,305 

Round: 
Edible  portion 

67.8 

20.9 

10.6 

1.1 

835 

8  5 

62.5 

19.2 

9.2 

1.0 

746 

Round,  second  cut: 
Edible  portion 

69.8 

20.4 

8.6 

1.1 

740 

19  5 

56  2 

16.4 

6.9 

.9 

595 

Rump: 
Edible  portion 

57.9 

18.7 

23.1 

.9 

1,325 

19  0 

46  9 

15.2 

18.6 

.8 

1,065 

Shank,  fore: 
Edible  portion                                      . 

70.3 

21.4 

8.1 

.9 

710 

38.3 

43.2 

13.2 

6.2 

.6 

465 

.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  85.        b  All  loin  parts  are  included  under  analyses  of  "  loin." 


25 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

BEEP,  FKESH—  continued. 

Shank,  hind: 
Edible  portion  

Perct. 

Perct. 
69.6 
31.0 

68.9 
67.0 

57.1 
36.7 

68.6 
63.3 

60.4 
49.1 

62.6 
49.5 

66.3 
55.3 

59.8 
60.4 

62.2 
52.0 

62.2 
60.5 

80.6 

62.6 
53.2 

76.7 
63.1 

71.2 
65.6 
70.9 
13.7 

70.8 
51.8 

23.2 
48.2 
44.1 
63.0 
54.8 
68.3 

51.8 
75.4 
72.3 
51.8 
44.8 
71.9 
52.9 
66.1 
71.4 

67.9 
47.7 
58.9 
49.9 
51.3 
74.6 

Perct. 
21.7 
9.7 

20.0 
16.5 

16.9 
10.8 

18.9 
14.7 

17.9 
14.5 

18.3 
14.4 

20.0 
16.7 

18.3 
15.4 

19.3 
16.1 

18.8 
15.2 

8.8 

16.0 
14.8 

16.6 
13.7 

20.4 
20.2 
16.8 
4.7 

18.9 
14.1 

21.4 
22.3 
23.6 
27.6 
23.5 
28.0 

25.5 
13.3 
17.8 
26.3 
39.2 
18.4 
27.6 
22.2 
17.8 

26.3 
18.5 
26.9 
21.4 
19.6 
16.8 

Perct. 
8.7 
-     8.9 

10.3 
8.4 

25.2 
16.2 

12.2 
9.5 

21.4 
17.6 

18.9 
15.1 

13.4 
11.2 

21.6 
18.3 

18.3 
15.4 

18.8 
15.5 

9.3 

20.4 
24.7 

4.8 
1.9 

4.5 
3.1 
12.1 
81.8 

9.2 
6.7 

61.7 
28.6 
27.7 
7.7 
20.4 
11.0 

22.5 
4.6 
6.8 
18.7 
5.4 
5.1 
15.9 
8.4 
10.0 

6.8 
4.6 
14.8 
25.1 
23.2 
8.5 

Perct. 

Perct. 
1.0 
.4 

1.1 
.9 

1.0 
.6 

.8 
.6 

.9 

.7 

.9 
.7 

1.0 

.8 

.9 

.7 

.9 

.8 

.9 

.7 

1.1 

1.0 
.9 

1.2 
1.0 

1.6 
1.3 
1.6 
.3 

1.0 
.8 

8.5 
1.3 
1.5 
1.8 
1.2 
2.8 

1.3 
2.7 
1.9 
4.0 
11.2 
2.5 
4.8 
3.2 
1.2 

1.2 
.8 
1.3 
4.0 
4.0 
.6 

Cals. 
77« 
346 

805 
660 

1,380 
885 

865 
675 

1,236 
1,010 

1,135 
905 

935 

785 

1,250 
1,060 

1,130 
950 

1,145 
935 

655 

1,160 
1,320 

520 
335 

605 
555 
825 
3,540 

740 
545 

2,680 
1,620 
1,610 
840 
1,300 
985 

1,425 
615 
640 
1,280 
960 
600 
1,185 
765 
755 

756 
535 
1,105 
1,465 
1,340 
670 

55.4 

Shoulder  and  clod: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  

17.4 

Socket: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  

35.8 

Forequarter,  lean: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased 

22.3 

Forequarter,  medium  fat: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  

18.7 

Forequarter: 
Edible  portion 

As  purcnased 

20.6 

Hind  quarter,  lean: 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased  

16.6 

Hind  quarter,  medium  fat: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  

15.7 

Hind  quarter: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased 

16.3 

Sides:  P 
Edible  portion       

As  purchased               . 

18.6 

BEEP  ORGANS. 

Brain,  edible  portion  .  .  . 

Heart: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  .      .    ..... 

5.9 

Kidney: 
Edible  portion.  

0.4 

As  purchased      ...  . 

19.9 

Beef  liver: 
Edible  portion  

1.7 
2.5 

As  purchased                  . 

7.3 

Suet,  as  purchased  

Tongue: 
Edible  portion  

As  purchased  .            .       ............ 

26.5 

BEEP,  COOKED. 

Roast  as  purchased 

Pressed  as  purchased 

Loin  steak,  te'nderloin  ,  broiled,  edible  portion 

BEEF,  CANNED. 

Chili-con-carne  as  purchased                   .... 

4.0 
1.1 

Corned  'beef  ....'..    *..    

Dried  beef  as  purchased 

2.1 

Luncheon  beef  as  purchased  

Ox  cheek  as  purchased                   .  .      

Oxtails:    ' 
Edible  portion 

29.7 

34 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse 

Water. 

Protein 
(N  x 
6.26). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

BEEF,  CORNED  AND  PICKLED. 

Brisket: 
Edible  portion  

Perct. 

Per  ct. 
50.9 

Per  ct. 
18.3 

Per  ct. 
24.7 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 
6.7 

Cols. 
I  385 

As  purchased. 

21  4 

40  0 

14  4 

19  4 

4  5 

1  085 

Flank: 
Edible  portion  ....        .... 

49  9 

14.6 

33  0 

2  9 

1  665 

As  purchased 

12  1 

43  7 

12  9 

29  2 

2  6 

1*470 

Plate: 
Edible  portion 

40  1 

13  7 

41  9 

4  7 

2  025 

As  purchased  

14.5 

34.3 

11.7 

35.8 

4.0 

1  730 

Rump: 
Edible  portion  

58.1 

15.3 

23.3 

o    o 

1  270 

As  purchased  

6.0 

54.6 

14.3 

22.0 

3  1 

1  195 

Extra  family  beef: 
Edible  portion  

37.0 

12.3 

47.2 

4.0 

2  220 

As  purchased                    ... 

10  4 

33.1 

11  1 

42.3 

3  6 

1  990 

Mess  beef,  salted: 
Edible  portion  

37.0 

12  6 

44.5 

6  5 

2  HO 

As  purchased 

10  5 

33  0 

11  2 

39  9 

5  9 

1  890 

Corned  beef: 
Edible  portion 

53  6 

15  6 

26  2 

4  9 

1  395 

As  purchased  

8.4 

49.2 

14.3 

23.8 

4.6 

1  271 

Spiced  beef,  rolled  as  purchased 

30  0 

12  0 

51.4 

6.8 

2  390 

Tongues,  pickled: 
Edible  portion  

62.3 

12  8 

20.5 

4.7 

1  105 

As  purchased 

6  0 

58  9 

11  9 

19  2 

4  3 

1  030 

Tripe,  as  purchased  

86.6 

11.7 

1.2 

0  2 

.3 

*270 

Dried,  salted,  and  smoked: 
Edible  portion  

54.3 

30.0 

6.5 

.4 

9.1 

840 

As  purchased                           .      . 

4.7 

53  7 

26  4 

6.9 

8.9 

780 

VEAL,  FRESH. 

Breast,  very  lean: 
Edible  portion  

73.2 

23.1 

2.5 

1.2 

536 

46.8 

88.9 

12.3 

1.3 

.7 

285 

Breast: 
Edible  portion  

68.2 

20.3 

11.0 

1.0 

840 

As  purcnased  ........ 

24.5 

51.3 

15.3 

8.6 

.8 

645 

Chuck: 
Edible  portion  

73.8 

19.7 

5.8 

1.0 

610 

As  purchased 

19  0 

59  8 

16  0 

4.7 

.8 

495 

66.9 

20.1 

12.7 

1.0 

910 

Leg: 
Edible  portion  

71.7 

20.7 

6.7 

1.1 

670 

As  purcnased  

11.7 

63.4 

18.3 

5.8 

1.0 

585 

Leg,  cutlets: 
Edible  portion  

70.7 

20.3 

7.7 

1.1 

705 

As  purchased.  ........... 

3  4 

68  3 

20  1 

7.6 

1.0 

690 

Loin: 
Edible  portion  

69  5 

19  9 

10.0 

1.1 

790 

As  purchased  .... 

18  9 

56  3 

16  1 

8  2 

.9 

645 

Neck: 
Edible  portion  

72  6 

20  3 

6.9 

1.0 

670 

31.5 

49.9 

13.9 

4.6 

.7 

456 

Rib: 

Edible  portion  . 

69  8 

20  2 

9  4 

1  i 

775 

25  0 

62.3 

15.2 

7.1 

.8 

680 

Rump: 
Edible  portion  

62.6 

19.8 

16.2 

1.1 

1,060 

30  2 

43  7 

13  8 

11.3 

.8 

735 

Shank,  hind: 

73.6 

20.7 

5.5 

1.0 

615 

As  purchased  

61  1 

28  6 

8  0 

2.2 

.4 

240 

Shoulder,  lean: 

73  4 

20  7 

4.6 

1.3 

580 

As  purchased..  

18  3 

59  9 

16  9 

3.9 

1.0 

480 

Shoulder  and  flank,  medium  fat: 
Edible  portion  

65  2 

19.7 

14.4 

1.1 

975 

As  purchased.................  .. 

23  0 

60  2 

15  1 

11.0 

.9 

745 

Forequarter: 
Edible  portion  

71  7 

20  0 

8.0 

.9 

710 

As  purchased.............      . 

24  5 

64  2 

16  1 

6.0 

.7 

635 

Hind  quarter: 
Edible  portion  

70  9 

20  7 

8.3 

1.0 

735 

As  purcnased..    ......         ....... 

20  7 

56  2 

16  2 

6.6 

.8 

580 

Side,  with  kidney,  fat,  and  tallow: 

71.8 

20.2 

8.1 

1.0 

716 

As  ptiTfthflaari 

92."* 

56.?. 

15.6 

6.3 

8 

566 

Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

VEAL,  FRESH—  continued. 
Heart  as  purchased                            

Per  at. 

Perct. 
73.2 

Per  ct. 
16.8 

Perct. 
9.6 

Perct. 

Perct. 
1.0 

Cols. 
72C 

Kidnevs  as  purchased 

75.8 

16  9 

6.4 

1.3 

585 

73  0 

19  0 

5  3 

1  3 

575 

Lungs  as  purchased                     

76.8 

17.1 

5.0 

1.1 

58C 

LAMB,  FRESH. 

Breast  or  chuck: 
Edible  portion 

56.2 

19.1 

23.6 

1.0 

1,35C 

As  purchased 

19.1 

45.5 

15.4 

19.1 

.8 

1,09C 

Leg,  hind: 
Edible  portion                          

58.6 

18.6 

22.6 

1.0 

1,30C 

As  purchased 

13.8 

50.3 

16.0 

19.7 

.9 

1.13C 

Loin,  without  kidney  and  tallow: 
Edible  portion                                    

53.1 

18.7 

28.3 

1.0 

1,54C 

As  purchased 

14  8 

45.3 

16.0 

24.1 

.8 

1,315 

Neck: 
Edible  portion 

56.7 

17.7 

24.8 

1.0 

1,37£ 

As  purchased  

17.7 

46.7 

14.6 

20.4 

.8 

1,13£ 

Shoulder: 
Edible  portion 

51  8 

18  1 

29.7 

1.0 

1,69C 

As  purchased                    

20.3 

41.3 

14.4 

23.6 

.8 

1.26E 

Forequarter: 
Edible  portion         

65.1 

18.3 

26.8 

1.0 

1.43C 

As  purchased                                 

18.8 

44.7 

14.9 

21.0 

.8 

1,16£ 

Hind  quarter: 
Edible  portion                         

60.9 

19.6 

19.1 

1.0 

1.17C 

As  purchased 

15  7 

51  3 

16  6 

16.1 

.9 

98E 

Side,  without  tallow: 
Edible  portion                               

58  2 

17.6 

23.1 

1.1 

1.30C 

19  3 

47  0 

14  1 

18  7 

.8 

1,05£ 

LAMB,  COOKED. 

Chops,  broiled: 
Edible  portion 

47  6 

21  7 

29  9 

1.3 

1.66J 

As  purchased  . 

13.5 

40.1 

18  4 

26.7 

1.2 

1,47C 

Leg  roast 

67  1 

19  7 

12  7 

.8 

90C 

Tongue,  spiced  and  cooked: 
Edible  portion                                 

67  4 

13  9 

17.8 

.6 

1,01C 

As  purchased 

2  6 

65  7 

13  5 

17  3 

.5 

981 

MUTTON,  FRESH. 

Chuck,  lean: 
Edible  portion 

64.7 

17  8 

16.3 

.9 

1,02( 

As  purchased 

19  5 

52  1 

14  3 

13  1 

.8 

820 

Chuck: 
Edible  portion 

48  2 

14  6 

36  8 

.8 

1.82J 

As  purchased 

19  4 

38  5 

11  7 

30  0 

.7 

1,48£ 

Flank: 
Edible  portion 

42  7 

14  3 

42  6 

.7 

2,06£ 

As  purchased  

9.9 

39.0 

13.8 

36.9 

.6 

1.81J 

Leg,  hind: 
Edible  portion 

63  2 

18  7 

17  6 

1.0 

1.08J 

As  purchased                    .....        

17.7 

61.9 

15.4 

14.5 

.8 

90( 

Loin,  without  kidney  or  tallow: 
Edible  portion 

47  8 

15  5 

36  2 

.8 

1,81£ 

As  purchased           

14.8 

40.4 

13.1 

31.5 

.6 

l,67f 

Neck: 
Edible  portion 

56  6 

16  7 

26.3 

1.0 

1.42C 

As  purchased         

26.4 

41.5 

12.2 

19.6 

.7 

1,05S 

Shoulder: 
Edible  portion 

60  2 

17.5 

21.8 

.9 

1.24£ 

22  1 

46  8 

13  7 

17.1 

.7 

97f 

Forequarter: 
Edible  portion 

52  9 

15.6 

30.9 

.9 

1,596 

As  purchased         

21.2 

41.6 

12.3 

24.5 

.7 

1,26£ 

Hind  quarter: 
Edible  portion 

54.8 

16.7 

28.1 

.8 

1,49E 

As  purchased         

17.2 

45.4 

13.8 

23.2 

.7 

1,23£ 

Side,  including  tallow: 
Edible  portion 

54.2 

16.3 

28.9 

.9 

1,52C 

18.1 

45.4 

13.0 

23.1 

.7 

1,21£ 

Side,  not  including  tallow: 
Edible  portion                            

53.6 

16.2 

29.8 

.8 

1.56C 

19.3 

43.3 

13.0 

24.0 

.7 

V25E 

MUTTON,  COOKED. 

50.9 

25.0 

22.6 

1.2 

L42C 

34 

28 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Pood  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

MUTTON,  ORGANS. 

Heart,  as  purchased 

Perct. 

Perct. 
69  5 

Per  ct. 
16  9 

Perct. 
12.6 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
9 

Cols. 
845 

Kidneys  as  purchased 

78  7 

16  5 

3  2 

1  3 

440 

Liver,  as  purchased  

61.2 

23.1 

9.0 

5.0 

1.7 

906 

MUTTON,  CANNED. 

Corned  as  purchased 

45  8 

28  8 

22.8 

4  2 

1  500 

47.6 

24.4 

24.0 

4.8 

1,466 

PORK,  FRESH. 

Chuck  ribs  and  shoulder: 
Edible  portion 

51  1 

17  3 

31  1 

9 

1  635 

As  purchased  

18.1 

41.8 

14.1 

25.5 

.8 

1,340 

Flank: 
Edible  portion 

59  0 

18  5 

22  2 

1  0 

1  280 

As  purchased  

18.0 

48.5 

15.1 

18.6 

.7 

1,065 

Ham,  fresh: 
Edible  portion  

50.1 

15.7 

33.4 

.9 

1.700 

As  purchased  

10.3 

45.1 

14.3 

29.7 

.8 

1  520 

Head: 
Edible  portion  

45.3 

13.4 

41.3 

.7 

1,990 

As  purchased  .    .. 

68  4 

13.8 

4  1 

13  8 

2 

660 

Head  cheese: 
Edible  portion  

43.3 

19.5 

oq  Q 

3.3 

1,790 

As  purchased 

12  1 

42  3 

18  9 

24  0 

3  0 

1  366 

Loin  (chops): 
Edible  portion 

50  7 

16  4 

32  0 

.9 

1  666 

As  purchased 

19  3 

40  8 

13  2 

26  0 

g 

1  340 

Loin,  tenderloin,  as  purchased  o    

66.5 

18  9 

13  0 

1.0 

900 

Middle  cuts: 
Edible  portion  

48.2 

15.7 

36.3 

.7 

1,825 

As  purchased  ...        ..         

19  7 

38  6 

12  7 

28  9 

7 

1  456 

Shoulder: 

51  2 

13  3 

34  2 

.8 

1  690 

As  purchased 

12  4 

44  9 

12  0 

29  8 

7 

1  480 

Side,  lard  and  other  fat  included: 
Edible  portion 

29  4 

9  4 

61  7 

4 

2  780 

As  purchased  

11.2 

26.1 

8.3 

54.8 

.4 

2,465 

Side,  not  including  lard  and  kidney: 
Edible  portion  o 

34  4 

9  1 

55  3 

5 

2  505 

As  purchased  

11.6 

30.4 

8.0 

49.0 

.5 

2,215 

Clear  backs: 
Edible  portion  d  

25.1 

6.4 

67.6 

.4 

2,970 

As  purchased  

5  7 

23  7 

6  0 

63  8 

.4 

2  805 

Clear  bellies: 
Edible  portion  «  

31.4 

6  9 

60.4 

.4 

2,675 

As  purchased 

6  2 

29  5 

6  5 

56  6 

4 

2  510 

Back  fat,  as  purchased  

7.7 

3.6 

89.9 

.1 

3,860 

Belly  fat  as  purchased 

13  8 

5  2 

81  9 

.2 

3  656 

Ham  fat  as  purchased 

9  1 

3  5 

88  0 

2 

3  780 

Jowl  fat,  as  purchased  .  . 

16.0 

6.9 

78.8 

.2 

3,435 

Feet: 
Edible  portion  /  

55.4 

15.8 

26.3 

.8 

1,405 

As  purchased.  .  . 

74  1 

14  3 

4  1 

6.9 

.2 

365 

Tails: 
Edible  portion  0  

17.4 

4.8 

77.1 

.3 

3,340 

As  purchased    .        

13  3 

15  0 

4  1 

66  9 

.3 

2  900 

Trimmings: 
Edible  portion  

23.3 

5  4 

70.2 

.3 

3,060 

As  purchased                .         ....... 

7  4 

21  6 

5  o 

65  0 

.3 

2  836 

PORK  ORGANS,  ETC. 

75.8 

11.7 

10.3 

1.6 

655 

Heart,  as  purchased            .        ....    .  . 

75.6 

17  1 

6  3 

1.0 

585 

Kidneys  as  purchased 

77  8 

15  6 

4  8 

1  2 

490 

Liver,  as  purchased  

71.4 

21.3 

4.5 

1.4 

1.4 

615 

Lungs  as*  purchased                                  . 

83  3 

11  9 

4  0 

.9 

390 

Marrow  as  purchased 

14  6 

2  3 

81  2 

3  470 

Skin,  as  purchased  .  .  , 

46.3 

26.4 

22.7 

.6 

1,450 

a  Eight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.51,  gelatinoids  0.6,  and 
b  Eight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.25,  gelatinoids  0.8,  and 
cEight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.35,  gelatinoids  1,  and 
dEight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.21,  gelatinoids  0.6,  and 
e  Eight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.18,  gelatinoids  0.6,  and 
/Eight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.32,  gelatinoids 3.5,  and 
o Eight  samples  contained  an  average  of  lecithin  0.20,  gelatinoids  0.6,  and  "flesh  bases 

84 


flesh  bases' 
flesh  bases' 
flesh  bases' 
flesh  bases' 


1 0.9  per  cent. 
1.1  per  cent. 
1.5  per  cent. 
0.8  per  cent. 
0.9  per  cent. 
2  per  cent. 
0.6  per  cent 


29 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat— Continued. 


Pood  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

PORK,  PICKLED,  SALTED,  AND  SMOKED. 

Ham,  smoked: 
Edible  portion 

Perct. 

Perct. 
39  8 

Perct. 
16  5 

Perct. 
38  8 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 
4  7 

Cols. 
1  945 

As  purchased  

12.2 

35.8 

14.5 

33.2 

4.2 

1  670 

Ham  skin  as  purchased 

27.2 

15.4 

63  7 

3  1 

2  555 

Ham  smoked  boiled  as  purchased 

51  3 

20  2 

22  4 

6  1 

1  320 

Ham  smoked  fried,  as  purchased  

36.6 

22.2 

83.2 

5  8 

1*815 

Ham,  boneless,  raw: 
Edible  portion  .  

50.1 

14.9 

28.5 

6.0 

1  480 

As  purchased 

a3.3 

48.5 

14.3 

27  5 

5  8 

1  425 

Ham,  luncheon,  cooked: 
Edible  portion      

49.2 

22.5 

21  0 

5  8 

1  305 

As  purchased 

«2  1 

48  1 

22  1 

20  6 

5  7 

1  280 

Shoulder,  smoked: 
Edible  portion 

37  6 

15.5 

41  o 

6  1 

2  020 

18  9 

30  7 

12  6 

33  0 

5  0 

1  626 

Pigs'  tongues,  pickled: 
Edible  portion 

58  6 

17  7 

19  8 

3  6 

1  165 

As  purchased  

3.2 

56.8 

17.1 

19.1 

3.4 

1,125 

Pig's  feet,  pickled: 
Edible  portion  

68.2 

16.3 

14.8 

.9 

930 

As  purchased           . 

35.5 

44.6 

10.2 

9  3 

.6 

585 

Dry-salted  backs: 
Edible  portion  

17.3 

7.7 

72.7 

2  8 

3,210 

As  purchased 

8.1 

15  9 

7.1 

66  8 

2  7 

2  950 

Dry-salted  bellies: 
Edible  portion 

17.7 

8.4 

72  2 

3  4 

3  200 

As  purchased 

8  2 

16  2 

7  7 

66  2 

8  2 

2  935 

Salt  pork,  clear  fat,  as  purchased  

7.9 

1.9 

86  2 

3  9 

3,670 

Salt  pork,  lean  ends: 
Edible  portion  

19.9 

8.4 

67.1 

5  7 

2,985 

As  purchased    ...        ... 

11.2 

17.6 

7.4 

59  6 

5  1 

2,655 

Bacon,  smoked: 
Edible  portion  

20.2 

10.5 

64  8 

6  1 

2,  930 

As  purchased 

8.7 

18  4 

9  5 

59  4 

4  5 

2  685 

Ribs  cooked,  as  purchased  

33.6 

24.8 

37.6 

2.2 

2,050 

Steak  cooked  as  purchased 

33.2 

45  4 

1  5 

2,285 

PORK,  CANNED. 

Brawn  boars'  brains  as  purchased 

49  0 

25  2 

23  0 

4  6 

1  440 

Boars'  heads  as  purchased  

65.3 

20.7 

22.2 

3.3 

1,320 

Ham  deviled  as  purchased 

44.1 

19.0 

34.1 

3.3 

1,790 

SAUSAGE,  b 

Aries: 
Edible  portion  

17.2 

26.8 

50.6 

7.3 

2,635 

As  purchased  

5.2 

16.8 

25.4 

48.0 

6.9 

2,495 

Banquet: 
Edible  portion  

62.7 

18.3 

15.7 

3.7 

1,005 

As  purchased  

1.6 

61.7 

18.0 

15.4 

3.6 

985 

Bologna: 
Edible  portion  

60.0 

18.7 

17.6 

0.3 

1,095 

As  purchased  

q    O 

55.2 

18.2 

19.7 

3.8 

1,170 

Farmer: 
Edible  portion 

23  2 

29  o 

42  0 

7  6 

2  310 

As  purchased  

3.9 

22.2 

27.9 

40.4 

7.3 

2,225 

Frankfort  as  purchased 

57  2 

19  6 

18  6 

1.1 

3.4 

1,170 

Holsteiner: 
Edible  portion  

25.6 

29.4 

37.3 

3.4 

4.3 

2,220 

As  purchased  .              

2.2 

25  1 

28  7 

36  6 

3.3 

4.2 

2,135 

Lyon,  pure  ham: 
Edible  portion 

32  5 

32  3 

27  2 

8  0 

1  750 

As  purchased  

10.0 

29.2 

29.1 

24  5 

7.2 

1,675 

Pork  as  purchased 

39  8 

13  0 

44  2 

1.1 

2.2 

2  126 

Pork  sausage  meat,  as  purchased  •  

46.2 

17.4 

32.5 

3.4 

1,695 

Pork  and  beef  chopped  together,  as  pur- 
chased                .              

55.4 

19  4 

24  1 

1.0 

1  380 

Salmi: 
Edible  portion  

30.5 

24.1 

39.9 

7.0 

2,130 

As  purchased... 

9.3 

27.6 

21.8 

36.2 

6.4 

1,935 

«  Refuse,  case. 

bin  some  cases  the  sum  of  the  percentages  of  water,  protein,  fat,  and  ash  in  sausage  does  not  make 
100.  In  such  cases  the  difference  is  estimated  as  carbohydrates.  There  are.  however,  no  tests  show- 
ing the  presence  of  these,  and  it  may  be  more  nearly  correct  to  give  no  value  for  carbohydrates. 


80 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

SAUSAGE—  continued. 

Summer: 
Edible  portion 

Perct. 

Perct. 
23.2 
20.9 
46.4 
43.9 

59.6 
42.6 
72.7 
28.9 

56.6 
49.5 

55.5 
68.4 
66.9 
70.1 
70.3 
71.0 
69.3 
72.0 
72.5 

51.2 
69.7 
69.2 
72.8 

46.8 
56.7 
65.8 
63.3 

47.3 
59.5 
63.4 
64.7 

49.2 
57.4 
57.0 
63.9 
56.7 
53.7 
58.5 
44.7 
66.1 
52.0 
68.6 
69.6 
62.7 

51.4 
61.1 
55.5 
73.9 
73.2 

43.3 
61.7 
48.3 
70.2 

41.9 

48.2 
46.0 
68.7 

Per  ct. 
26.0 
24.5 
20.1 
28.0 

17.9 
24.9 
14.9 
9.9 

16.6 
14.6 

17.8 
21.9 
22.6 
20.8 
21.9 
19.8 
22.4 
20.7 
24.7 

15.5 
20.7 
21.1 

18.7 

17.7 
21.5 
21.6 
20.6 

14.4 
20.4 
19.4 
18.7 

19.0 
22.2 
21.4 
25.7 
17.7 
39.2 
34.6 
16.8 
24.9 
27.8 
16.8 
22.9 
20.5 

15.4 
18.3 
17.4 
22.3 
17.9 

12.0 
14.3 
13.5 
18.9 

13.6 
15.1 
15.0 
22.3 

Per  ct. 
44.5 
42.1 
33.1 
22.1 

20.6 
27.8 
9.9 
58.5 

24.8 
21.6 

7.2 
8.9 
10.1 
8.2 
7.4 
6.4 
4.2 
5.5 
1.4 

3.3 
8.3 
8.8 
6.1 

17.5 
21.2 
22.1 
14.6 

12.6 
19.2 
16.6 
13.7 

16.2 
18.9 
20.6 
9.4 
23.5 
4.3 
4.9 
5.9 
8.7 
18.4 
13.2 
5.2 
14.5 

16.0 
19.0 
26.1 
2.3 
5.0 

28.0 
33.4 
37.9 
8.1 

31.6 
36.0 
38.3 
7.8 

Perct. 

Perct. 
7.7 
7.0 
3.2 

4.4 

2.0 
6.4 
2.8 
2.1 

2.0 

1.8 

.9 
1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.1 
1.3 
1.7 
1.4 
1.4 

.8 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 

1.0 
1.2 
1.2 
1.3 

.7 
1.1 
1.0 
1.3 

1.0 
1.2 
1.1 
1.3 
1.2 
2.2 
1.8 
.9 
1.3 
1.2 
1.0 
.7 
.1 

.1 
.3 
.0 
1.3 
1.8 

.7 
.9 
.7 
1.6 

.8 
.9 
.8 
1.4 

Cols. 
2,360 
2,230 
1,770 
1,485 

1,200 
1,635 
695 
2,665 

1,355 
1,180 

765 
945 
1,000 
850 
835 
810 
800 
770 
695 

540 

890 
880 
730 

1,205 
1,465 
1,460 
1,155 

910 
1,350 
1,215 
1,070 

1,185 
1,385 
1,435 
1,065 
1,480 
1,200 
1,090 
685 
1,015 
1,505 
1,000 
820 
1,170 

1,086 
1,290 
1,540 
685 
720 

1,516 
1,805 
1,950 
835 

1,710 
1,940 
2,030 
995 

As  purchased 

7.0 

Tongue  as  purchased 

Wienerwurst,  as  purchased  

1.6 

SAUSAGE,   CANNED. 

Beef  as  purchased 

Bologna  Italian  as  purchased 

F  ankf  ort  as  purchased 

Oxford  as  purchased 

0.6 

Pork:   ' 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

a  12.  6 

18.8 

CHICKENS. 

Young: 
As  purchased  

Edible  portion 

Meat  not  including  giblets 

Dark  meat 

Light  meat     . 

Giblets  

Liver 

2.4 

Heart  

Gizzard 

Broiler: 
As  purchased  

29.1 

Edible  portion 

Meat,  not  including  giblets  

Giblets 

Capon: 
As  purchased  

17.5 

Edible  portion 

Meat,  not  including  giblets  

Giblets  

Other: 
As  purchased  

25.2 

Edible  portion  .                    .      .  . 

Meat  not  including  giblets 

Giblets  

OTHER  FOWL. 

Turkey: 
As  purchased 

14.3 

Edible  portion  

Dark  meat  ... 

Light  meat 

Giblets  

Dart  jnp.ftt  oookp.<1 

Light  meat,  cooked  

Young,  as  purchased  

32.4 

Young  edible  portion 

Cooked 

Heart  

Liver 

.6 
1.2 

Gizzard  

Duck: 
As  purchased 

15.9 

Edible  portion  

Meat,  not  including  breast  or  giblets 

Breast 

Giblets  

Duckling: 
As  purchased 

16.2 

Edible  portion  

Meat,  not  including  giblets  

Giblets 

Green  goose: 
As  purchased  

12.2 

Edible  portion 

Meat  not  including  giblets 

34 


a  Refuse  liquid. 


81 


Average  chemical  composition  of  different  kinds  of  meat — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Protein 
(Nx 
6.25). 

Fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
value 
per 
pound. 

OTHER  FOWL—  continued. 

Goose: 
As  purchased                              

Perct. 
11.1 

Perct. 
48.0 

Perct. 
14.8 

Perct. 
25.5 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 
1.0 

Cols. 
1,475 

54.0 

16.6 

28.7 

1.1 

1.660 

51  8 

16  2 

31.5 

1.0 

1  755 

Giblets 

70.0 

20.1 

8.2 

1.7 

910 

73.8 

19.6 

6.8 

1.0 

750 

62.6 

16.6 

15.9 

3.7 

1.2 

1,175 

Pigecn: 
As  purchased                         

13.6 

55.2 

19.7 

9.5 

1.3 

915 

Edible  portion                                       .  .  . 

64.0 

22.8 

11.0 

1.6 

1,060 

63.2 

22.9 

12.1 

1.4 

1,100 

Giblets                                            

68.1 

22.2 

6.2 

2.3 

845 

Squabs: 
As  purchased                        

15.6 

49.0 

15.7 

18.6 

1.3 

1,205 

Edible  portion                                  

58.0 

18.6 

22.1 

1.6 

1,430 

66.6 

18.5 

23.8 

1.4 

1,470 

Giblets 

69  8 

19  8 

7.2 

2.0 

835 

Guinea  hen: 
As  purchased                      

16.4 

57.7 

19.4 

5.4 

1.1 

730 

69.1 

23.1 

6.5 

1.3 

870 

68.9 

23.4 

6.5 

1.3 

865 

Giblets 

69  9 

20.8 

7.1 

1.3 

865 

Pheasant: 
As  purchased                  

12.0 

61.5 

21.6 

4.2 

1.0 

730 

69.9 

24.4 

4.8 

1.1 

830 

70.0 

24.7 

4.6 

1.1 

815 

Giblets 

68.9 

20.1 

7.2 

1.6 

880 

Russian  pheasant: 

14.1 

61.1 

21.5 

1.9 

1.2 

636 

71.1 

25.0 

2.3 

1.4 

740 

70.6 

25.7 

2.3 

1.4 

730 

atHiA+fl 

74.4 

21.2 

2.2 

1.3 

665 

Quail: 

10.5 

59.0 

22.3 

6.1 

1.4 

835 

65.9 

26.0 

6.8 

1.6 

935 

66.3 

25.4 

7.0 

1.4 

945 

Giblets 

63.0 

21.8 

6.2 

2.3 

970 

PRESERVED  POULTRY  MEAT. 

Smoked  goose  breast  (including  skin  and 
fat) 

35.7 

20.1 

38.7 

5.5 

2,210 

Smoked  goose  breast  (skin  and  outer  fat 

61.3 

26.1 

4.4 

8.0 

845 

56.0 

17.2 

22.0 

3.0 

1,390 

56.1 

19.4 

20.3 

2.5 

1,390 

87.1 

2.9 

3.3 

5.1 

1.6 

300 

91.0 

2.4 

.2 

4.8 

1.6 

160 

07.6 

27.7 

12.8 

2.2 

1,246 

•   46.9 

20.8 

30.0 

2.6 

1,825 

47.4 

20.7 

29.2 

2.7 

1,790 

66.9 

21.8 

8.0 

1.7 

1.6 

936 

41.3 

13.6 

38.2 

4.3 

2.6 

2,075 

31 


o 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


MAY 


LD  21-100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476 


284456 


